The following was adapted from an article by Gregory Kiyai@Keai of the University of Malaya. Efforts to contact him by e-mail for permission have proven unsuccessful.
Hinduism reached Borneo as early as the 5th century or possibly earlier. Evidence includes records written on stone from Kotei, East Borneo, which details Hindu rites performed by Brahmins, and a cave at Kombeng with various Brahmanical and Buddhist images, including a notable stone statue of Ganesa. Although this Ganesa statue, features him with four hands and typical attributes, is traditionally dated to the 5th century based on the Kutei carvings, stylistic analysis suggests it is more likely from the 8th century.
The Śhiva-Buddhist era in the archipelago emerged notably around the 13th century AD, during the Singhasari Kingdom. The Sinhasari Kingdom was in east Java from 1222-1292 as evidenced by the Sutasoma manuscript. The Sutasoma was an old Javanese poem which was written in the 1200s during the reign of King Kertanegara who ruled Singasari from 1268-1292.
The Singhasari kings who preceded King Kertanegara were also recognized as adherents of both Śhiva and Buddhism. The ŚhivaBuddhist religion continued through the Majapahit period and extended to the Balinese and Malay kingdoms until the decline of Majapahit in the 15th century.
Early Hindu-Buddhist religious travellers utilized Malaysian waters as part of their voyages from China to India. The return journeys began in Sri Lanka and returned to China in the early 5th century CE.
The ships sailed to the Andaman Islands, navigating with the monsoon winds, then proceeded through the Strait of Malacca towards Java or Borneo. They would wait for the monsoon winds before returning to China.
By the 7th century CE, according to the Chinese traveller I-Ching, many Buddhist monks had regularly travelled between China and India. I-Ching started his journey in 672 CE to study Sanskrit, sailing to the Bujang Valley, a complex in Kedah, to board a royal vessel to India and to study at Nalanda University. The University is in Bihar, India a state in northeast India divided by the Ganges River.
The image of Ganesha travelled through southeast Asia with Hinduism. As Hindus gradually migrated to Indochina, Ganesha appeared in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In this region, Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted and resulted in different forms of Ganesha.
In Indonesia, a 1st-century AD Ganesha statue was discovered on the summit of Mount Raksa on Panaitan Island. The island is located in the southwestern part of the Java Sea off of Java Island.
An 11th-century Ganesha statue was unearthed in eastern Java, Kediri, and is now housed at The Museum of Indian Art (Museum für Indische Kunst) in Berlin-Dahlem. Additionally, a 9th-century Ganesha statue is located in the western cella (room) of the Prambanan Hindu temple. From a statute unearthed in a building site in Palembang, it is believed Hinduism arrived in the area in the 7th century.
Sarawak
By the 1st century A.D., major metropolitan centres in India and China had begun international trade, with sea routes passing through the archipelago. The early influence of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Sarawak was due to the commercial activities of Chinese and Indian traders. Sarawak’s strategic location and its attractive trade goods such as rattan, resin, and exotic forest products made it an appealing destination for traders who sailed to Sarawak while selling their goods like ceramics, silk, and perfumes.
The intricate historical records of migration and cultural exchange in Sarawak also require consideration of the archaeological evidence of early settlements. Since 1952, the Sarawak Museum’s excavations at various sites in the Sarawak Delta and further north along the coast have uncovered several tons of Chinese and Siamese export ceramics from the 10th to the 15th centuries. The presence of these artefacts suggests that Sarawak had a sufficiently large population during this period to create a market for Chinese traders, who likely traded these goods for forest products collected by the local people.
Various Indian artefacts, such as gold jewellery, a Gupta Buddha statue, and a figure of Ganesha, the Hindu elephant god and protector of travellers indicate early trading interactions between India and Sarawak.
The Sarawak River delta benefits from a prominent landmark, Mount Santubong, with its limestone peak visible from miles out to sea. Artifacts from India and China found in the delta suggest that a number of small trading settlements flourished here between the 7th and 14th centuries.
After this period, trade shifted north to Brunei Bay, aligning with Brunei’s rise as an international trading hub.
Other notable excavated sites in Sarawak include Song on the Rejang River and Miri on the northern coast, both of which feature Chinese ceramics from after the 14th century. Tanjong Kubor, Tanjong Tegok, Bongkisam, Muara Tebas, Bukit Bako, Sungei Ja’ong, Sungei Buah, along the Sarawak coast and inland (Song, Niah, Miri), and in the north near Brunei (Kota Batu) are trade routes in Sarawak based on the discovery of artefacts from China and India.
Limbang Sarawak
The Limbang Division is situated in the northeastern part of Sarawak, bordered by Brunei to the west, Brunei Bay to the north, Sabah, and Kalimantan to the east, and the Baram District (Miri Division) to the south.
Bukit Mas, situated in the town of Limbang in Northern Sarawak, is a prominent 210-meter-high limestone outcrop covered in jungle that overlooks the town. This site holds fascinating historical and heritage significance for Limbang. Bukit Mas has revealed two notable discoveries, although no ceramics were found. The first was a collection of 25 gold objects uncovered after a landslide in 1899, and the second was a stone Ganesha.
These discoveries are thought to exhibit Javanese influence and were likely crafted in Java, with the gold objects dating from 1200 to 1500 CE and the Ganesha statue from the 13th to 14th centuries. No other artefacts have been found at Bukit Mas, and there is no evidence suggesting that the site was inhabited or used as a religious shrine.
In 1921, during excavation work at Bukit Mas in Limbang, near the residence of Mr F.F. Boult, a significant archaeological find was unearthed, a stone sculpture of Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity revered for his wisdom. At that time, Boult served as the Limbang Resident and subsequently sent the statue to the Sarawak Museum in Kuching for preservation. The Ganesha statue stands 24 inches tall and 12 inches wide.
This image and statue of Ganesha are said to be similar to those found at Mount Kombeng in Southeast Borneo. Experts suggest that this Ganesha statue originated in India and may have been present in Limbang around the 6th or 7th century CE. Based on visual observation, this Ganesha statue resembles other types of Ganesha statues from India. The features that identify this form include (i) an elephant-shaped head, (ii) three eyes, (iii) four arms, (iv) a round belly, and (v) a snake serving as the sacred thread.
The stone sculpture of Ganesha from Bukit Mas is believed to have direct Hindu origins, with varying scholarly opinions on its dating. According to Professor Dr. N.J. Krom of Leiden University, the statue dates back to the 6th or 7th century.
Sir John Marshall, the Director General of Archaeology of India, suggests that it may be somewhat earlier than the 13th century. In contrast, Professor Sastri from India proposes that the statue is likely from the 13th to 14th century and notes its possible Javanese influence. These differing assessments highlight the complexities of dating and the cultural exchanges reflected in the artwork.
Gregory Kiyai@Keai in Jurnal Borneo Akhailogia (Warisan, Arkeologi & Sejarah), Disember 2024, Vol. 9(1), hlm. 83-96
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