China, Santubong and Java p. 2
During the Qin (221 B.C-206 B.C) and the Han (206 B.C. 220A.D.), the population of China was concentrated along the banks of the middle part of the Yellow River. A belt of settlements reached westward via the Gansu corridor to Turkistan. These were the much-travelled caravan routes.
During the thousand years from the Qin (221 B.C-206 B.C) to the Song (960-1279), the population had shifted to below the Yangzi River. This was caused by the phenomenal multiplication of the people to the south. There was no population increase by the peoples in the north and west but a doubling of the population to the south. By the beginning of the Song period (960-1278), half to three-quarters of the population was concentrated in the six coastal provinces.
The migration of people, especially from the north created two classes of people, the settled and the migratory. During the Song, over one-third of the people were on the move. They settled in the south. To make matters worse, the south was struck by great droughts and floods. There were also temperature changes from 1100-1400. Severe and brutal winters occurred which affected the food supply. These scenarios provided a perfect storm for the migration of Chinese overseas.
Now we return to Santubong. During the same period, we see the establishment of the throne from Tanjungpura in about 925. There is a great possibility of Chinese settlements in the Sarawak river delta because of the brutal weather which brought crop failures and yet great advances forward in so many areas.
Carried with the settlers to Santubong were the accomplishments of the “golden age of Chinese science”. There were major advances in printing, paper making, ceramics, silk weaving, the magnetic compass, gunpowder, firearms, astronomical discoveries, in math and engineering and agriculture. In regards to Santubong, the improvements in boating plus the improved making of ceramics came together.
Government officials and members of the court bought shares in trading companies and sent ships out to trade with Southeast Asia. Literary men no longer considered business to mundane. In 1137, the Emperor said the profit from maritime is very great is properly managed could reach millions of strings of cash.”
Advances in ships also came about during this period. Iron anchors gradually replaced stone anchors by 1281. Rudders were also introduced. At the beginning of the 1300s, cloth sails were being used. The putty used for caulking boats came from trees in Southeast Asia.
There is some debate between historians on the role of Brunei. Santubong had a wide port on approach while Brunei was behind an island and a reef. Ships would have to thread their way to Brunei while the open port of Santubong afforded safe anchorage. The technology was just not there to make Brunei a port.
Under the supervision of the Chinese government, gold, silver, coins, lead, tin, textiles and porcelain were to be bartered for spices, aromatics woods, drugs, coral, pearls, amber and many other products. Of these, Santubong was rich in camphor, an aromatic wood. Borneo Camphor was considered the best in the world. The Chinese government sent emissaries to four ports of which, Santubong was one. Meanwhile, in Santubong, in the early 900s docks and ports were built to handle the increasing China trade.
Foreign traders arrived in China. They were Arabs or those of Arab descent who came from Sri Vijaya, Champa and the Middle East. The Chinese built a hostel to house them in 1115. Foreign colonies became a part of the Chinese city landscape. In 1127, the Emperor told the merchants arriving in China not to bring tribute to lighten the burden of the people. Gifts from Arab merchandise such as gems and pearls were politely refused.
The infrastructure of the ports was improved. Huge rocks were removed from the sea lanes from Hanoi to Guangzhou. The harbour at Guanzhou was dredged and deepened. A breakwater at Kan-Pu was constructed. At Wenzou, two rock piers were constructed a thousand feet into the sea. One pier was for government ships the other for regular merchandise. The port at Hua-t’ ing was opened. A harbour was built at Hainan Island. Inland ports on the Yanzi and Yellow river were also opened.
In Santubong, during the reign of Saganda Manikam (1277-1303),
Saganda opened a kampong for boats. There were other smaller kampongs opened for trade, and docks were constructed for the merchants.
Kublai Khan and the Mongols swept Asia into Austria. Their advance was stopped at Syria. Proceeding eastward they captured Korea and began an assault on China. The capture of most of the mainland was completed in 1279. They then began three campaigns to capture Japan but all three failed.
Next was the invasion was Southeast Asia. The Yuan sent an expedition to Vijaya the capital of Champa in 1283. There were three expeditions against Annam. The 1293 expedition against Java was next.
The Invasion of Java
The region of the lush tropical islands of the Eastern Archipelago would bring rare riches which would enrich China. However, the region was under the sphere of influence of the strong Javanese state of Tumpel whose rise to power was coincident with the rise of the Mongol Empire (Yunan)
Kertangara, the King of Tumapel, supplanted the once-powerful kingdom of Sri Vijaya on Sumatra. He regarded the efforts of the Yuan officials to win over islands in the East Indies as a direct challenge to his empire. He regarded attempts by the Yunan diplomats as insults. Finally, he had the last diplomat branded and sent back to China.
Shortly after this, Kertanagara was deposed and killed by one of his vassals, Jayakatong of Gelang, viceroy of Kederi (Daha) in 1292. Kertangara son in law, Raden Vijaya, refused to recognize Jayakatong. He waged a war against Jayakatong from his stronghold in Majapahit.
Unaware of the change in politics in Java, Kublai Kahn ordered that Shi Bi, Gao Xing and Yiqmis prepare for an expedition against Java. Twenty thousand men, a fleet of a thousand ships stockpiled with food for one year were assembled. The plan was for them to set sail in 1293. In a meeting with Kublai Kahn, the Commanders were informed to tell the Javanese that this was not an invading force but rather a punishment for branding the Yuan envoy.
Because of problems with Annman, only 10,000 men were prepared for the expedition to Java in August of 1293. During the preparations, a tight watch was kept over foreign merchants. They were permitted to enter but could not leave Chinese ports to keep the expedition a secret.
The main body of 5,000 men assembled at Ningbo then proceeds down to Quanzhou to collect the other units of the expedition. The fleet set sail from Hon-shu during a winter storm on 22 January 1293. Although the damage was considered minor, many of the sails had to be replaced and the men went without food for several days.
The fleet passed the Taya Islands and stopped at Champa where Yiqmis dispatched two of his officers to visit Lamuri, Samudra, Perlak, and Mulayu (all in Sumatra). The fleet continued sailing past the Natuna Islands and on 25 February arrived at the mountain island of Gelam off the west coast of Borneo.
Checking the Internet, the Gelam I found was on Singapore Island which was not off the west coast of Borneo. Could they have meant Santubong? Santubong could have handled a fleet of a thousand ships and watered the expedition.
On 15 March 1293, Yiqmis started with 10 ships with 500 officials for the Office of the Imperial Commissioner of Java. It was hoped that diplomatic action would bring the Javanese to terms. The main force was to wait seven days and then set sail to Pulo Krimun to provide a display of force should the diplomats fail.
A week later when the Javanese officials refused to meet the diplomats from China, Shi Bi and Gao Xing sailed to Tuban with a large Chinese colony and began to disembark their troops. After a delay, Gao Xing and Yiqmis led a force of infantry and cavalry to march across the country, while the Naval forces sailed through the Straits of Madura. The two forces were to meets Pachekan (south of Surabay) on 30 March. Due to various delays, the land and sea forces did not meet at Pachekan until 8 April.
When the Yuan forces assembled at Pachekan, they met a large fleet of Javanese warjunks filled with armed men blocking the Brantas River. They set up a banquet on the river bank and motioned the Javaenses over but were rebuffed. After several attempts to contact the Javaenses had failed, the Yuan forces attacked with Tuqudege leading the warships Ch’en Chen-kho in charge of the infantry and cavalry. The Javanese retreated leaving over 100 large warships.
The Chinese force advanced up the Brantas River. They were met by an envoy sent by Radin Yijya saying the Gelang troops led by Jayakatong were attacking him in his Majapahit stronghold and he needed immediate help. Yiqmas ordered Chen Zhenguo to occupy the port of Chang-ku and Gao Xing rushed to Majapahit, but it turned out to be a false alarm and Gao Xing decided to return to the Yuan camp.
On 14 April, hearing that Gelang forces under Jayakatong were marching towards Majapahit, Yiqmis ordered Gao Xing to intercept the enemy while he, leading another column, rushed to defend Majapahit. Somehow the enemy eluded Gao Xing and reached the southeast of Raden Vijayas city to be met by Yiqmis. On the following day, Gao Xing finally showed up and together with Yiqmis drove off the Gelang troops.
Meanwhile, Radin Vijaya presented maps to the Yuan commanders showing them how to reach Kediri (Daha), the capital of Gelang and headquarters of Jayakatong.
On 22 April, the Yuan forces began their advance against Kediri. The Yuan fleet sailed up the Brantas River while Yiqmis and Gao Xing led forces on the east and west sides of the river. The forces met at the enemy stronghold where they found an army of over 100,000 (according to Yuan counts). The battle lasted from dawn to early afternoon. The enemy attacked three times and three times they were repulsed. By evening, the Gelang forces were crushed. Six thousand were killed and tens of thousands fled by swimming across the river. The King of Gelang fled to the city which was immediately attacked by the Yuan forces. Messengers were sent to ask for his surrender and he submitted to the Yuan commanders.
Eastern Java lay under Yuan arms. On 9 May, Yuan’s first mistake, they formally turned over their captured territory to Raden Vijaya. The second mistake was to permit Raja Vijaya to return to Majahapit, giving him an escort of only two hundred men.
On 26 May, Raden Vijaya revolted and killed his escort. Then he rallied his men and appealed to the nation to drive out the invaders. Thinking the war was over, Shi Bi sent his forces back to the base at Pachekan while remained at his Kediri with a small detachment of troops. Raden Vijaya tried to trap him there but Shi Bi escaped in time. Leading his men down the Brantas River by foot, Shi Bi fought his way over 100 miles where he reached Pachekan. The Yuan fleet set sail. Their casualties came to three thousand men.
Sixty-eight days later the fleet reached Quanzhou. They brought with them a hundred members of the household of Jayakatong as prisoners. They also looted maps of the country, a register of the population, large quantities of spices, batik cloth, gold and silver, ivory and rhinoceros horn from neighbouring states. [Santubong ?] Shi Bi, Yiqmis and Gao Xing were summoned before the Khan and received 50 blows each and a third of their property confiscated.
Raden Vijaya had eliminated his rival and, by revolting, he had rid the country of the invaders. He became the most dominant man in Java. He founded the state of Majapahit which became the most powerful in Southeast Asia.
From: Lo Jung-Pang China as a Sea Power, 1127-1368 Singapore: NUS Press, 2012.
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