The Brunei Malays are coastal and riverine people. Only very rarely were they found very far inland or upland. Brunei culture exhibited considerable knowledge and skill in fishing, boat building, sailing and trading. Besides, the Bruneis harvested a variety of natural products. For centuries, they figured prominently in Brunei culture.
Important rivers flow into Brunei Bay. The Brunei River is short but is a cut off from a much larger river, the Limbang. The Brunei River is uncommonly broad and placid. At its mouth there is an island and a reef, making it very difficult to penetrate forcibly by sea.
What needs to be stressed is the control of the waterways. Bruneis political and economic position rested on control of the coastline and its rivers, especially control of the river mouths. Not only did it control traffic to or away from the coast but it controlled much inter river traffic. The easiest way to go from one river to another was going out to the coast between the mouths.
In virtually all parts of northern Borneo, Brunei exercised no direct administrative control over the affairs of the people of the interior. However, indirectly, through control of the coast, Brunei exercised leverage over the destinies of the interior peoples.
The ethnic Bruneis were Muslim and Malay peoples centred about their ancient capital on the Brunei River. The Bruneis claim to be derived from ancient people living in the area. From their perspective, they have lifted themselves above their neighbours by their association with semi-divine early leaders such as the Hindu gods. They also felt that their association with traders from Johor, Java, Sumatra, China and Arabia made them feel superior. From these sources, the Bruneis claim the royal trappings, immigrants and rulers.
The Kedayan were similar to the Bruneis in the Islamic religion and spoke a language very similar to the Bruneis. However, they were/are agricultural people. They were thought of by the Bruneis as general subjects of Brunei to rule by the Bruneis.
The Sulus were rivals of the Bruneis and subject to Sultanates further north. The Bajaus to the north and the Melanaus to the south were considered to be subjects. The Sarawak Malays were considered as country bumpkins to the Bruneis. Most of the peoples of Brunei were pagans fit only to rule according to Brunei thoughts.
In 1850, the Chinese began to immigrate into Brunei as labourers or traders fully intending to return to China with their wealth. However, many found it impossible or undesirable to return. The British arrived in small numbers and were firmly in control of North Borneo by 1900.
The tendency was not to add jobs to the population but to replace them. The Malay dominated nakhodas (river transports) disappeared from trading by the British and the Chinese. The British and Chinese secured the support of ruling families through monopolies. The British ruled North Borneo from 1906 to 1959 being replaced by the minority Bruneis.
As one moved up rivers and away from the capitals, people were usually ruled by hereditary nobles connected to the royal family. Thus, a longhouse or a tribe had a Brunei head, either by marriage or conquest. The boundaries of these riverine communities were fuzzy and, in the course of things, unimportant. What was important was the rulers of these smaller communities could count on income from their subjects and support from the Brunei government. They had a vested interest in the trade.
The Bruneis divided the hinterland into districts, subdivisions and then into sub-districts. The districts were the watershed of a river. The subdivisions divided the rivers into upriver and downriver, left and right banks and by branching and tributaries. (The author does not state what he means by subdistricts-Tom)
District rulers lived in the capital city or their domain. A combination of kinsmen and nonnoble (but not pagans) did the work.
Historically, district rulers who lived in their districts were very rebellious. This pattern was an abstract concept with a wide variety of applications.
The Bruneis had two major concerns. The first was maintaining control over the waterways and preventing violence during a succession of the rulers. To the north, The Sulus cut into control of the rivers. To the south Ibans and Kayans contested Brunei control.
During succession, the “owner” (kepala waris) was in reality a group of people. When he died, the group selected another leader who had to had to pay monies to the Sultan to receive a “seal”. This was the only contact for most of the division heads in Brunei.
Bruneis are divided into nobles and non-nobles. Nobles are further divided into core nobility and common nobility. Non-nobles are divided into aristocrats and commoners. The non-
Bruneis are divided into subjects and slaves.
The nobles are further divided into the following:
pengiran muda-son of a Sultan or vizer (wazir) by a noble wife
pengirian anak-daughter of a Sultan, son of a Sultan by non-noble wives all children of a wazir.
pengiran-married male and female nobles who did not fall into 1or 2 above. Females who married a noble
awanku-a not yet married male who did not fall into 1 or 2
dayangku-female who did not fall into 1 or 2 and has not married a noble.
ampuan– ambiguous and a puzzle to most Bruneians.
Non-Nobility Commoners
awang awang-descendants of foreign nobility and holders of high office.
Foreigners
Descendants of the Prophet Muhammed receive the rank of noble.
Chinese and Britain’s receive the rank of non-noble Bruineis
Nobles were specialized to rule; Aristocrats were occupationally restricted to trade in fine metalwork and weaving. Nobles had a large contingent of hanger -ons and while aristocrats were very rich with more cash and gold.
Kampongs
A kampong is a residential cluster governed by a headman. A major exception to Brunei rule was the headman came from the kampong and not the ruling Brunei people in the capital.
There were types of kampongs in Brunei. The first type was like kampongs everywhere, composed of similar peoples and interrelated through marriage. The second type was a kampong led by a great man and had many different races and religions within one unit.
The essay goes on to talk about the government appointments organization into viziers and cheteria (having to do with Islam) for nobles and lower government offices into pehin-pehin, (again having to do with Islam) miscellaneous and land chiefs. Quite boring actually. If you have any questions please let me know.
Fr. Brunei in Comparative Perspective by D.E. Brown in the Sarawak Museum Journal, December 1978.
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