The Eruption of Krakatoa in 536 AD

by Tom McLaughlin

In our book, we supported the hypothesis by David Keys that there was a volcanic eruption of the Krakatoa volcano in 536. This eruption was on such a massive scale that it obliterated most of the population in Java and Sumatra and caused a major cooling of the earth.

Building on the work of Keys, we hypothesized this eruption caused the halt in trading between China and the area until 560. We also proposed it caused the migration of peoples from Sumatra/Malaya to the mouth of the Kapuas River and the northern migration of Dyaks into the hinterland of Borneo.

Now, we have the hypothesis by Dr Robert Dull of the University of Texas. He believes a volcano in El Salvador was responsible for the worldwide catastrophic global cooling. He proposes two eruptions one in 536 and another in 539-540. Whether both eruptions came from the Central American volcano is not clear. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.037

The hypothesis is the Krakatoa site has been ruled out as the source of the 536 eruption as proposed by Keys because “the radiocarbon, geochemical and volcanological evidence does not support such claims.”Dull states that no volcanic debris from the Krakatoa is in evidence. I had a look at the evidence and there appears to be no volcanic remnant of the 536 eruption. 

Southon, J, Mohtadi, M and de Pol-Holz, R (2013) Planktic Foram Dates from the Indonesian Arc: Marine 14C Reservoir Ages and a Mythical AD 535 Volcanic Eruption. Radiocarbon, 55(2-3). 1164-1172. doi:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16384

The research on the El Salvador volcano caused us to look at the ice cores secured from the Arctic. Scientists drill into the ice and pull out a long core of ice. They are then able to read the core and find out what the weather was like back in history. The ice cores showed the sulphates contained in the ice had to come from the El Salvador volcano because there is no record of any other eruption in the world.

Next was the analysis of tree samples. Three old tree trees were discovered buried in the soil. They were analyzed by scientists and found a volcanic deposit in the correct time frame as the eruption. Given the ice cores and the tree data, there is no doubt that El Salvador was the source of the great eruption and climate change in 536.

We know that trade stopped from China to Sumatra until 560 during what has now been called the “Late Antique Little Ice Age”. The small city-states located in Sumatra and Malaya failed. The Chinese used palm fronds as sails bumping down the coast of Malaya to Sumatra replacing the fronds as they wore out. From south Sumatra, they sailed to Santubong where they could obtain more fronds and fresh water. From Santubong, they sailed back to China. Could the darkening of the skies right after the eruption cause the death of palm trees and therefore no fronds to use as sails?

We also see the halt in trade during this period because of the reunification of China under the Sui dynasty. This provoked the fall of most Southeast Asian trading states. They did not recover until the 7th century.(Munoz:p. 96)(Munoz, Paul Early Kingdoms Singapore: Editions Didier Millet Pte Ltd,2006)

The city-state of Kantoli (located between Jambi and Palembang) also went into a decline in the middle of the 6th century. Could this have also been the result of the volcanic eruption and the subsequent problems in China? (Munoz p. 102-103)

We have the establishment of the Barus people to the north on Sumatra and the kingdoms of Malayu and Sri Vijaya (?) to the south. ( Here we must be careful as Dr Liam C. Kelley (Rescuing History from Srivijaya: The Fall of Angkor in the Ming Shilu (Part 1) has stated there was no Sri Vijaya. The city seemed to be only a miss reading of Chinese sources carried forward by scholars from1918 to the present) 

 With the Chinese coming down to trade to south Sumatra, they would have turned their ships north to Santubong to collect water and more palm fronds on the winds of the Southeast monsoon and then proceeded back to China. 

Now we get to the religion of the people of South Sumatra and how they could have brought it with them to Santubong. “Archeological evidence has now revealed that Hinduism has been regularly practised in South Sumatra” says Pierre Manguin in his article PALEMBANG AND SRIWIJAYA: AN EARLY MALAY HARBOUR-CITY REDISCOVERED in Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 66, No. 1 (264p) (1993).p. 31.

 However, he also states that Tantric Buddhism could also have been practised there. There is no reason to deny that the tantric Buddhism philosophy could have hitched a ride on the boats heading for Santubong or to the Kapuas River for that matter. 

We have to ask what is” Tantric” Buddhism. According to several websites, tantric Buddhism is an offshoot of Buddhism that professes a mystical path to enlightenment. The religion is also called Vajrayana. There is also a Hindu version of the religion. 

There could have been both Buddhism and Hinduism being preached in Santubong. If one looks at the Chinese temples today, both religions have their deities in the temples. This is not an unusual occurrence, as I once thought being confused about the deities in the temples. I finally understood that concept.

Now, let’s look at the evidence. The Santubong Buddha is the crown jewel of the Borneo Museum. The Buddha cannot be older than the 500’s. Therefore the Buddha must have arrived sometime before that date. (see The Santubong Buddha and Its Context by A.B. Griswold in the Sarawak Museum Journal July-December 1962) 

In summary:

1. There was no eruption of Krakatoa in 536. The eruption occurred in El Salvador.
2. There was a disruption in trade with China and the Sri Vijaya (?) complex during the period following the eruption.
3. People returning to China went to Santubong first to replace the palm fronds and to collect water.
4. Hinduism and Buddhism thrived in South Sumatra and were carried to Santubong by traders.

We can now hypothesize about this series of events at Santubong.

1. Chinese traders visited Santubong as early as 400 AD to fix sails and take on water on the southwest monsoon
2. The Chinese established a trading post at Santubong. Buddhism and Hinduism became established
3. The eruption of the El Salvador volcano caused a halt in trade ~536Santubong became a major port in 
4. ~560 Trade in metal established
5. In~ 966 Hyang Gi ruler of Tanjungpura established a dynasty at Santubong
6. The line of the Hyang Gi dynasty lasted until ~1512 when Brunei troops levelled Santubong
7. Rajah Tengah of Brunei tried to establish a Kingdom at Santubong
8. The Sultan of Brunei gave Santubong to Datuk Merpati
9. Santubong declines into a backwater.
10. Tom Harrisson begins digging up Santubong in the 1950s. There are many articles written by students from Cornell University over his name.
11. Dr Perret continues Tom Harrisson’s work until today 2023 although I cannot find any information on his research except for a summary of Tom Harrissons work.